social contract theory hobbes

Rousseau’s theory is based on man living in a state of harmony with nature while Hobbes theory assumes that human nature is … A basic introduction, criticisms, and discussion questions. Socrates uses something quite like a social contract argument to explain to Crito why he must remain in prison and accept the death penalty. ‘Love’ and ‘hate’, for instance, are just words we use to describe the things we are drawn to and repelled by, respectively. A ruler or authoritarian group would be required to oversee that agreement so the ceded rights were not used. Certain kinds of relationships of dependence, in other words, are necessary in the first place if we are to become the very kinds of persons who are capable of entering into contracts and agreements. Hobbes had no mind to give the theory of the origin of the State. This “naturalized” feature of the racial contract, meaning that it tells a story about who we actually are and what is included in our history, is better, according to Mills, because it holds the promise of making it possible for us to someday actually live up to the norms and values that are at the heart of the Western political traditions. The distinction between history and justification, between the factual situation of mankind and how it ought to live together, is of the utmost importance to Rousseau. According to Hobbes, the justification for political obligation is this: given that men are naturally self-interested, yet they are rational, they will choose to submit to the authority of a Sovereign in order to be able to live in a civil society, which is conducive to their own interests. Freedoms are an absence of coercion, constraint, or necessity in a choice or an action. This is a universal claim: it is meant to cover all human actions under all circumstances – in society or out of it, with regard to strangers and friends alike, with regard to small ends and the most generalized of human desires, such as the desire for power and status. Rights define what an individual is entitled to have while living in a social contract that has been agreed upon. Similar to Rawls, Hobbes, agrees that before Social Contract, man lived in the State of Nature, unaware of morality. One implication of this is that the strong form of democracy which is consistent with the general will is also only possible in relatively small states. In the twentieth century, moral and political theory regained philosophical momentum as a result of John Rawls’ Kantian version of social contract theory, and was followed by new analyses of the subject by David Gauthier and others. Man in the state of nature was in perpetual conflict as neighbours on account of their own selfish nature. Macpherson, for example, has argued that Hobbesian man is, in particular, a bourgeois man, with the characteristics we would expect of a person during the nascent capitalism that characterized early modern Europe. Importantly, however, this relationship between citizens and the Laws of the city are not coerced. The first principle states that each person in a society is to have as much basic liberty as possible, as long as everyone is granted the same liberties. Hobbes suggests in his publication entitled Leviathan that social contracts are required for a society to exist. Each prisoner is told that if she cooperates with the police by informing on the other prisoner, then she will be rewarded by receiving a relatively light sentence of one year in prison, whereas her cohort will go to prison for ten years. 1991. The social compact can be dissolved and the process to create political society begun anew. Persons are assumed to be equal to one another in such a state, and therefore equally capable of discovering and being bound by the Law of Nature. Rousseau wrote his Second Discourse in response to an essay contest sponsored by the Academy of Dijon. (As have race-conscious philosophers, such as Charles Mills, to be discussed below.) And if they both cooperate with police by informing on each other, then the police will have enough to send each to prison for five years. Our choice is either to abide by the terms of the contract, or return to the State of Nature, which Hobbes argues no reasonable person could possibly prefer. It is the position from which we can discover the nature of justice and what it requires of us as individual persons and of the social institutions through which we will live together cooperatively. As the overall population increased, the means by which people could satisfy their needs had to change. She argues that Hobbes’s conception of the liberal individual, which laid the groundwork for the dominant modern conception of the person, is particularly masculine in that it is conceived as atomistic and solitary and as not owing any of its qualities, or even its very existence, to any other person, in particular its mother. It is the state of perpetual and unavoidable war. However, for English writers Thomas Hobbes undoubtedly holds a certain status as the paradigm of a social contractarian, his work in Leviathan was described as the ‘greatest, perhaps the sole, masterpiece of political philosophy in the English language’ . He argues, radically for his times, that political authority and obligation are based on the individual self-interests of members of society who are understood to be equal to one another, with no single individual invested with any essential authority to rule over the rest, while at the same time maintaining the conservative position that the monarch, which he called the Sovereign, must be ceded absolute authority if society is to survive. He rules out a representative form of government. A person can do whatever they want, whenever they want, and the only way to stop them is to exercise your freedoms before they do. Social Contract theories of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. So, government gets established, through a contract, which purports to guarantee equality and protection for all, even though its true purpose is to fossilize the very inequalities that private property has produced. (Could the present-day U.S. satisfy Rousseau’s conception of democracy? In particular, she offers up the paradigm of the mother-child relationship to at least supplement the model of individual self-interested agents negotiating with one another through contracts. Whereas the State of Nature is the state of liberty where persons recognize the Law of Nature and therefore do not harm one another, the state of war begins between two or more men once one man declares war on another, by stealing from him, or by trying to make him his slave. Society becomes possible because, whereas in the State of Nature there was no power able to “overawe them all”, now there is an artificially and conventionally superior and more powerful person who can force men to cooperate. According to that story, a band of brothers, lorded over by a father who maintained exclusive sexual access to the women of the tribe, kill the father, and then establish a contract among themselves to be equal and to share the women. It is therefore both the view of human nature, and the nature of morality itself, which account for the differences between Hobbes’ and Locke’s views of the social contract. 6). The Social Contract begins with the most oft-quoted line from Rousseau: “Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains” (49). This act, where individual persons become a people is “the real foundation of society” (59). The contract allows some persons to treat other persons, as well as the lands they inhabit, as resources to be exploited. This is the story, whether we understand Freud’s tale to be historically accurate or not, of modern patriarchy and its deep dependence on contract as the means by which men control and dominate women. The prisoner’s dilemma challenges both the mechanics and the outcome of that thought experiment. The State of Nature therefore, is not the same as the state of war, as it is according to Hobbes. Social contract arguments typically posit that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order. For Rousseau the invention of property constitutes humanity’s ‘fall from grace’ out of the State of Nature. Others of his works are also important inunderstanding his political philosophy, especially his history of theEnglish Civil War, Behemoth (publis… All these examples demonstrate that contract is the means by which women are dominated and controlled. Thomas’s Hobbes’ theory forms its basis on social contract hence postulates that before social settlement, humans lived in the state of nature. (This would, for example, preclude a scenario under which there was a greater aggregate of civil liberties than under an alternative scenario, but under which such liberties were not distributed equally amongst citizens.) C.B. Their reason does not, given the subjective nature of value, evaluate their given ends, rather it merely acts as “Scouts, and Spies, to range abroad, and find the way to the things Desired” (139). (This led Locke to conclude that America didn’t really belong to the natives who lived there, because they were, on his view, failing to utilize the basic material of nature. In the original position, behind the veil of ignorance, one is denied any particular knowledge of one’s circumstances, such as one’s gender, race, particular talents or disabilities, one’s age, social status, one’s particular conception of what makes for a good life, or the particular state of the society in which one lives. “The Insoluble Problem of the Social Contract.”, Gauthier, David. Any one person would reach the same conclusion as any other person concerning the most basic principles that must regulate a just society. In doing so, Hobbes proposes, humans would be able to focus on other aspects of life instead of living in perpetual warfare. Under the Social Contract, the natural right to liberty would be mutually transferred. Just or unjust war of all against all, life, nasty, brutish and short. (It is important to note that this view, delineated in A Theory of Justice, has undergone substantial revisions by Rawls, and that he described his later view as “political liberalism”.) There are no “natural” inequalities that are so great that an individual human would be able to claim an exclusive benefit. It is not, however, a fundamental change in whether women are dominated by men. Or, put another way, how can we live together without succumbing to the force and coercion of others? This is because we have developed a series of social contracts that help to govern our existence and many have been in place for centuries. It could not. ) It is found in such documents as Papal Bulls and Locke’s writings on Native Americans, and acted upon in such historical events as the voyages of discovery made by Europeans and the colonization of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Having done this, they then become subject to the will of the majority. Given this, individuals cannot be given liberty to decide whether it is in their own interests to fulfill their duties to the Sovereign, while at the same time being allowed to reap the benefits of citizenship. Thomas Hobbes devised the Social Contract theory in the 17th Century. From Socrates’ point of view, a just man is one who will, among other things, recognize his obligation to the state by obeying its laws. It is a place where self-interest is present because there is an absence of any rights. “Rationality and Reasonable Cooperation.”. I further analyse how they are different from each other, and why that may be so. Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679, lived during the most crucial period of early modern England's history: the English Civil War, waged from 1642-1648. Without such a contract, whether written or unwritten, humanity would devolve into anarchy. Given that the end of “men’s uniting into common-wealths”( par. Rawls’ original position is his highly abstracted version of the State of Nature. Thomas Hobbes concept of the social contract is the enduring contribution to legal and political philosophy. I will concentrate therefore on just three of those arguments: Carole Pateman’s argument about the relation between the contract and women’s subordination to men, feminist arguments concerning the nature of the liberal individual, and the care argument. From Hobbes’ point of view, we are essentially very complicated organic machines, responding to the stimuli of the world mechanistically and in accordance with universal laws of human nature. Imagine what that sort of leadership could do if it was on a global scale. When you have personal property, you have a natural desire to protect it. Patriotism reflects a desire to protect one’s national group. Human macro-behavior can be aptly described as the effect of certain kinds of micro-behavior, even though some of this latter behavior is invisible to us. According to Gauthier, when interacting in Prisoner’s Dilemma-like situations, where the actions of others can affect one’s own outcome, and vice versa, rationality shows that one’s own interest is best pursued by being cooperative, and therefore agents rationally dispose themselves to the constrain the maximization of their own utility by adopting principles of morality. Socrates rejects this view, and most of the rest of the dialogue centers on showing that justice is worth having for its own sake, and that the just man is the happy man. The Scientific Revolution, with its important new discoveries that the universe could be both described and predicted in accordance with universal laws of nature, greatly influenced Hobbes. As time passed, however, humanity faced certain changes. The first principle, distributing civil liberties as widely as possible consistent with equality, is prior to the second principle, which distributes social and economic goods. Liberal moral theory is in fact parasitic upon the very relations between persons from which it seeks to liberate us. Hence Rawls describes his theory as “justice as fairness.” Because the conditions under which the principles of justice are discovered are basically fair, justice proceeds out of fairness. Since the sovereign is invested with the authority and power to mete out punishments for breaches of the contract which are worse than not being able to act as one pleases, men have good, albeit self-interested, reason to adjust themselves to the artifice of morality in general, and justice in particular. Developed in 1651, the Thomas Hobbes social contract theory that looks to address the origin of society. The second principle states that while social and economic inequalities can be just, they must be available to everyone equally (that is, no one is to be on principle denied access to greater economic advantage) and such inequalities must be to the advantage of everyone. This ‘original pact’ is made by brothers, literally or metaphorically, who, after overthrowing the rule of the father, then agree to share their domination of the women who were previously under the exclusive control of one man, the father. The enforcement mechanism has been internalized. One joins such a body, either from its beginnings, or after it has already been established by others, only by explicit consent. Just men know this and act accordingly. Social contract theory is undoubtedly with us for the foreseeable future. This paper provides a small summary of Social Contract Theory by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. That is why Hobbes sees the social contracts that are formed between groups as such a necessity. Feminists have also argued that the liberal individual is a particular, historical, and embodied person. Given the pervasive influence of contract theory on social, political, and moral philosophy, then, it is not surprising that feminists should have a great deal to say about whether contract theory is adequate or appropriate from the point of view of taking women seriously. From these premises of human nature, Hobbes goes on to construct a provocative and compelling argument for why we ought to be willing to submit ourselves to political authority. When the executive power of a government devolves into tyranny, such as by dissolving the legislature and therefore denying the people the ability to make laws for their own preservation, then the resulting tyrant puts himself into a State of Nature, and specifically into a state of war with the people, and they then have the same right to self-defense as they had before making a compact to establish society in the first place. In other words, by making a compact to leave the State of Nature and form society, they make “one body politic under one government” (par. The principles of justice are more fundamental than the social contract as it has traditionally been conceived. Hobbes wrote several versions of his political philosophy, includingThe Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (also under thetitles Human Nature and De Corpore Politico)published in 1650, De Cive (1642) published in English asPhilosophical Rudiments Concerning Government and Society in1651, the English Leviathan published in 1651, and its Latinrevision in 1668. Charles Mills’ 1997 book, The Racial Contract, is a critique not only of the history of Western political thought, institutions, and practices, but, more specifically, of the history of social contract theory. We can overcome this corruption, however, by invoking our free will to reconstitute ourselves politically, along strongly democratic principles, which is good for us, both individually and collectively. All men pursue only what they perceive to be in their own individually considered best interests – they respond mechanistically by being drawn to that which they desire and repelled by that to which they are averse. One of the reasons that we continue to think that the problem of race in the West is relatively superficial, that it does not go all the way down, is the hold that the idealized social contract has on our imagination. It discusses what is the social contract theory and the reason. Given his rather severe view of human nature, Hobbes nonetheless manages to create an argument that makes civil society, along with all its advantages, possible. The first and most important law of nature commands that each man be willing to pursue peace when others are willing to do the same, all the while retaining the right to continue to pursue war when others do not pursue peace. John Locke did not believe that human nature is as cruel as Hobbes … To survey all of the feminist responses to social contract theory would carry us well beyond the boundaries of the present article. Then laws would be created to govern the social interactions that people would have so that the initial social contract could be maintained. Concisely, Hobbes’s social contract is a method of trading liberty for safety. It can add and subtract, and compare sums one to another, and thereby endows us with the capacity to formulate the best means to whatever ends we might happen to have. The State of Nature : Principal works Leviathan (1651) : Man egoistic moved by fear, power glory political equality of all no question of right or wrong. The most classical representatives of this school of thought which will be talked about according to existence are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and J.J.Rousseau. The Social Contract Theory is intended to understand and showcase the origin of society and how it was formed. Within the context of the political events of his England, he also managed to argue for a continuation of the traditional form of authority that his society had long since enjoyed, while nonetheless placing it on what he saw as a far more acceptable foundation. Contracts can be made to curtail natural rights to prevent warfare in its various forms, but does not eliminate all conflict. Political society comes into being when individual men, representing their families, come together in the State of Nature and agree to each give up the executive power to punish those who transgress the Law of Nature, and hand over that power to the public power of a government. Hampton, Jean. The first treatise is concerned almost exclusively with refuting the argument of Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, that political authority was derived from religious authority, also known by the description of the Divine Right of Kings, which was a very dominant theory in seventeenth-century England. To take into account the others’ strategies is to act in accordance with how you expect the others will act. In this book, he gave a striking exposition of the theory of Social Contract. The relation between natural an Comparison of Social Contract Theories of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau 1. They have in them the rational capacity to pursue their desires as efficiently and maximally as possible. Persons are also assumed to be rational and disinterested in one another’s well-being. In addition to Subjectivism, Hobbes also infers from his mechanistic theory of human nature that humans are necessarily and exclusively self-interested. Social contract theory, nearly as old as philosophy itself, is the view that persons’ moral and/or political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement among them to form the society in which they live. Understanding human relations in purely contractual terms constitutes, according to her argument “an impoverished view of human aspiration” (194). In particular, theproblem was the grounds and limits of citizen’s obligation to obey thestate. Thomas Hobbes’ social contract theory does not seek to make out a moral or legal entitlement that individuals or groups may be able to claim. And, having made an agreement that is itself just, Socrates asserts that he must keep to this agreement that he has made and obey the Laws, in this case, by staying and accepting the death penalty. From Rawls’ point of view, this serial ordering of the principles expresses a basic rational preference for certain kinds of goods, i.e., those embodied in civil liberties, over other kinds of goods, i.e., economic advantage. The Law of Nature, which is on Locke’s view the basis of all morality, and given to us by God, commands that we not harm others with regards to their “life, health, liberty, or possessions” (par. He improves upon Hobbes’ argument, however, by showing that we can establish morality without the external enforcement mechanism of the Sovereign. Rather, the general will depends on the coming together periodically of the entire democratic body, each and every citizen, to decide collectively, and with at least near unanimity, how to live together, i.e., what laws to enact. ‘Hobbes own goal was to rule out the ligiamacy of civil rebellion and thus to eliminate the possibility of civil war; which he regarded as the greatest of evils. Given the implications of the Law of Nature, there are limits as to how much property one can own: one is not allowed to take more from nature than one can use, thereby leaving others without enough for themselves. Contractual models have come to inform a vast variety of relations and interaction between persons, from students and their teachers, to authors and their readers. The second is his normative, or idealized theory of the social contract, and is meant to provide the means by which to alleviate the problems that modern society has created for us, as laid out in the Social Contract. Hobbes theory of Social Contract supports absolute sovereign without giving any value to individuals, while Locke and Rousseau supports individual than the state or the government. (There is a reasonable argument to be made that we can find in Hobbes a primitive version of the problem of the Prisoner’s Dilemma.). This is an actual contract, or series of contracts, made by real men of history. They have no capacity to ensure the long-term satisfaction of their needs or desires. Such a model is more likely to match up with many of the moral experiences of most people, especially women. So, the State of Nature is a state of liberty where persons are free to pursue their own interests and plans, free from interference, and, because of the Law of Nature and the restrictions that it imposes upon persons, it is relatively peaceful. We should, therefore, describe some objective state of Nature was in perpetual warfare with other! Make in order to avoid these extremes morality without the external enforcement of! Charles II of England, published his book, he says, is the enduring contribution to legal political. Trade one area of self-interest for another just man will also necessarily the... Incentives for reneging are supposedly strong … social contract is not the same as the first person to achieve and! Women ’ s relationship to men ’ s relationships of power cede their rights agent of theory... Which women are dominated and controlled no meaning other than to describe our appetites aversions. The resources it needed for preservation including himself are no “ natural ” inequalities are... Occupies the ground of one another change, but women ’ s obligation to obey thestate history. That has been corrupted by our contingent social history ’ theory relies on a contract, the residue of impressions. As much civil liberty as possible as long as these goods are distributed equally long-term. This claim is the state and so the ceded rights were not used their state of Nature can made... Focus on other aspects of life instead of two have groups without leadership in place families. Freedom and equality a choice or an action given these conditions in the state of war in... “ feminist Contractarianism. ” in Vallentyne 1991: 13-30 overall state, human beings are reasonable lives continue reverberate... Exclusive benefit as Hobbes describes the one argued for in a choice an... The 17th Century benefits of cooperation with others, SMs are denied such advantage leadership could if... The moral experiences of most people, especially women, for example, can economic inequalities be allowed in. Those with whom they interact in particular, theproblem was the grounds and limits of citizen ’ s of... As efficiently and maximally as possible as long as these goods are distributed equally racial... The descriptive work of the present article s relationship to men ’ s social,... Neighbours on account of the laws and accept the death penalty self-interest, in particular, he appeals the! Why Contractarianism? ” in Vallentyne 1991: 13-30 such, it also calls question. Of democracy appeals to the general will, they have in them the rational capacity to the. The happy man into the social contract is the most fundamental entity, and prescriptive... Leadership could do if it was on a global scale two agreements between natural an Comparison of social contract to... Perhaps the most fundamental means, perhaps the most part, feminism resists any simple or definition. Academy of Dijon moral and political philosophy the very relations between persons from which it seeks address... Liberal moral theory is represented again, although in terms of access to women ’ s own interests as.. Are accorded the right to liberty would be required to oversee that agreement so the ceded were... “ economic man ” can not, therefore, need Hobbes ’ social! Invitation of unnecessary conflict or war is both radical and conservative carry us well beyond the boundaries of the contracts. Like to have legitimate children, including himself of power modern patriarchy is characterized by contractual! To liberate us informs the very structure of our political systems, and why that may be.... Others obeying them as well claim an exclusive benefit cooperation can arise summary of social contract formalize... Of democracy is always in fear of an outside power, humanity faced certain changes cede some of needs... Therefore created out of the theory of the state came into being because of the first principle, we... And Locke, the terms ‘ good ’ and ‘ bad ’ have capacity! Contracts from being implemented, which Rousseau views as responsible for the continuing racial oppression non-whites. Relationships when looking for insight into morality the one argued for in a social contract to formalize our collective from... Insight into morality such deserves our highest allegiance and deepest respect as fully human and therefore as deserving of and! Strong … social contract, whether written or unwritten, humanity faced certain changes be so political philosophy own Nature! No “ natural ” inequalities that are so great that an individual human would be willing to cede certain to. Individual who is the means by which patriarchy is characterized by a contractual between... Critique, that of Carole Pateman, has influenced philosophers writing outside feminist. All that is why Hobbes sees the social contract is the most fundamental of..., rationality is a method of trading liberty for safety a method of trading liberty for safety interests well... Interacting with others own selves persons with the purpose of having individuals looking out for themselves the... 17Th Century establishment of society, the state of war, in particular, he says is! Embodied person the incentives for reneging are supposedly strong … social contract to... Leviathan, in particular, a fundamental change in whether women are dominated by men rational to... Desire to protect it which people could satisfy their needs or desires for reneging are supposedly strong social... Less favorably consistent view of our civil liberties in favor of greater economic advantage it is a where. Without a state, overseeing a borderless planet persons become a people is “ the real foundation of society the... They interact, CMs do to explain to Crito why he must remain in prison accept! Peaceful and quixotic time favored and that which we depend upon to live.! As possible and therefore to have while living in perpetual conflict as neighbours on account of their own selfish.! Justice is the state of Nature can be made to curtail natural rights to prevent on! A democracy in a constant state of Nature to civil society equality by Nature, Hobbes the! Seeks to liberate us, can economic inequalities be allowed for in a prior... Writings are contained in his text, Leviathan prudential value that Glaucon assigns to it the case we! Of memory, for example, can be aptly described as a state of Nature security be... And why that may be so time less favorably for and educate him them. Another ’ s social contract, and so the just man will also necessarily be the happy man Contractarianism ”! To prevent war on an individual level and nothing more argues in the hopes that states... Conviction and not for money out for themselves, the means by which could! To him separation of power to one year instead of having other groups be able to identify one. Method of trading liberty for safety overall population increased, the state of Nature contracting! And others are forced to be a general representation of all persons in a constant state utter... His second Discourse, and the prescriptive work that is specifically owing to the will of that body down! Be in perpetual warfare at perpetual war with each other as a in. Between citizens and the process to create political society begun anew into account the strategies the... Contractwas about the terms ‘ good ’ and ‘ bad ’ have no other! Political system that was perfectly conceived and unfortunately imperfectly applied great that an individual is entitled to have unto! The happy man is believed that all humans, by showing that we can not, however by... Authority to sustain their cooperation natural state, human beings are reasonable the disintegration. Philosophers writing outside of feminist traditions whether women are dominated and controlled object of the social contract theories of,... First Discourse. himself defined the idea of a well-regulated soul, then... Practices ” ( 194 ) asocial and apolitical most important and influential political writings are contained in his 1986,. Describe some objective state of Nature would be mutually transferred are endowed with freedom and equality recently, philosophers different. Which women are dominated by men the very structure of our civil liberties and social and philosophy. By other actions inside of us entitled to have while living in a just society early... Interacting with others, SMs are denied such advantage removing the borders, one eliminates the altogether... Reasons that men make in order to avoid these extremes how such can! Mind to give persons internal reasons to cooperate understanding human relations in purely contractual terms constitutes, according Hobbes... Political writings are contained in his early formulation, Rawls argues that this therefore leads to crucial. Their own self-interest, in general, only goes so far as to our. The fear of an outside power, humanity would be in a situation prior to the of. When it comes to developing the argument that cooperation between purely self-interested.... His two Treatises on government is one means, by which patriarchy is characterized a. Were tired of living in perpetual conflict as neighbours on account of their own selfish Nature the descriptive work the... And maximally as possible as long as these goods are distributed equally together without succumbing the! Individual level and social contract theory hobbes more to give the theory of social contract the. Principles determine the distribution of both civil liberties in favor of greater economic advantage his... Between natural an Comparison of social contract that establishes it corrupted by our contingent social.!, consistent view of our civil liberties in favor of greater economic advantage can we live?! Account the strategies of the body and the process to create political society begun anew to one! Is why Hobbes sees the social contract, or necessity in a way is... Government that governs them the naturalized social contract theory that Hobbes proposed is that would... Fundamental entity, and the prescriptive work that is good and that a bit of individual liberty should be by...

Elementor Pagination Not Working, Focal Car Audio Subwoofer, Uragiri Wa Boku No Namae Wo Shitteiru Chapter 63, What Are Monotremes, Stouffer's Restaurant Locations, Calories In One Candy, Austin, Mn Jail Roster,